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Browse the storeForeshortening compresses objects along the line of sight to create perspective depth. Learn how Mantegna, Michelangelo, and Caravaggio used this technique.
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Look at Andrea Mantegna's Lamentation over the Dead Christ (c. 1470-1480, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan). Christ lies on a marble slab, his feet pointing directly at the viewer. The feet are enormous. The torso, behind them, is compressed into a short horizontal band. The head, farthest away, is small. This is foreshortening at its most extreme, and it is disturbing. The painting forces you to see the body from an angle that compresses its length into its thickness. Mantegna deliberately reduced the size of the feet so they would not block the view of the body, a compromise between geometric accuracy and compositional readability that every painter who foreshortens must negotiate.
Foreshortening is the technique of depicting an object or figure as shorter than it actually is, in the direction perpendicular to the picture plane, to create the illusion that it is receding into depth. When an object is angled toward the viewer, the part nearest the viewer appears larger and the part farthest away appears smaller. The overall length of the object, as projected onto the picture plane, is compressed. This compression is foreshortening, and it is one of the most powerful tools for creating the illusion of three-dimensional volume on a flat surface.
This entry covers how foreshortening works, its history, which artists pushed it furthest, and what research tells us about how viewers perceive foreshortened images.
Foreshortening is a direct consequence of linear perspective. In a perspective projection, objects appear smaller as they recede from the viewer. When an object extends along the line of sight (toward or away from the viewer), its near end is closer and appears larger, while its far end is farther and appears smaller. The result is that the object's projected length on the picture plane is shorter than its actual length. A finger pointing at the viewer appears as a short, round shape with the fingertip nearest and the hand behind it, rather than as an elongated finger.
The degree of foreshortening depends on the angle between the object and the picture plane. An object parallel to the picture plane is not foreshortened at all. An object perpendicular to the picture plane (pointing directly at the viewer) is foreshortened to its maximum. Most foreshortened objects in painting are at intermediate angles, producing moderate compression.
Foreshortening is not the same as simple size diminution. Size diminution occurs when an entire object is farther away and appears smaller. Foreshortening occurs when different parts of the same object are at different distances, so the object appears compressed along its depth axis. A figure lying on the ground with feet toward the viewer is foreshortened because the feet are closer than the head. A figure standing at a distance is simply smaller, not foreshortened.
A 2025 study published on arXiv examined the difference between artist-drawn perspectives and analytically correct linear perspective, focusing on what the researchers called "human perspective deviation." The study found that artists systematically deviate from geometrically correct foreshortening, and that these deviations are not errors but deliberate choices. Artists reduce the full brutal effect of foreshortening to make the image more readable and less disturbing. Mantegna's reduction of Christ's feet in the Lamentation is a textbook example of this kind of deliberate deviation. The study is available at arXiv.
Foreshortening was first studied systematically during the Quattrocento (15th century) by painters in Florence and Padua. Paolo Uccello (1397-1475) was one of the earliest practitioners. His Battle of San Romano panels (c. 1438-1440) show lances, horses, and fallen soldiers in various states of foreshortening, though Uccello's perspective is sometimes more enthusiastic than accurate.
Francesco Squarcione (1395-1468) taught foreshortening in Padua, and his most famous student, Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), became its greatest early exponent. Mantegna's Lamentation over the Dead Christ is the most famous foreshortened figure in Western art. Mantegna also used foreshortening in the ceiling oculus of the Camera degli Sposi (1465-1474, Ducal Palace, Mantua), where figures lean over a painted balustrade seen from below (sotto in su), their bodies compressed by the upward viewing angle.
Michelangelo (1475-1564) used foreshortening extensively in the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508-1512). The figures of the prophets and sibyls are foreshortened to be read from below, with their bodies tilted forward and their limbs compressed. The Creation of Adam shows God's arm reaching toward Adam, with the arm foreshortened to create a sense of forward movement.
The Baroque period made foreshortening a standard tool for illusionistic ceiling painting. Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494) invented the sotto in su technique, painting figures on ceilings as if seen from below, with their bodies foreshortened to appear as though they were floating above the viewer. Andrea Pozzo's The Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius (1685-1694, Church of Sant'Ignazio, Rome) uses extreme foreshortening to make flat ceiling appear as an open sky. You can read more about this approach in our entry on three-point perspective.
Caravaggio (1571-1610) used foreshortening for dramatic effect in easel paintings. In The Supper at Emmaus (1601, National Gallery, London), the disciple's outstretched arm projects toward the viewer, foreshortened to create a sense of explosive movement. The arm seems to break the picture plane and enter the viewer's space.
Mantegna's Lamentation over the Dead Christ (c. 1470-1480, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) is the canonical example. Christ's body is seen from the feet, with the entire figure compressed into a short vertical space. Mantegna reduced the size of the feet to prevent them from overwhelming the composition, a deliberate deviation from strict perspective that demonstrates the tension between geometric accuracy and visual readability. His Camera degli Sposi ceiling oculus (1465-1474) shows foreshortened figures leaning over a balustrade, one of the earliest uses of sotto in su perspective.
The Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508-1512) contains over 300 foreshortened figures. The prophets and sibyls are seated in architectural niches and foreshortened to be read from floor level, 60 feet below. Michelangelo designed each figure to be legible from that extreme viewing angle, which required him to compress bodies and enlarge heads and hands relative to the geometrically correct proportions.
Tintoretto used foreshortening to create dramatic, plunging viewpoints. In The Miracle of the Slave (1548, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice), Saint Mark descends headfirst from the sky, his body foreshortened into a diagonal that cuts through the crowd below. The foreshortening creates a sense of miraculous intervention: the saint seems to fall out of heaven into the scene.
Caravaggio used foreshortening to make figures project toward the viewer. In The Conversion of Saint Paul (1601, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome), Paul lies on the ground with his arms thrown up and his legs toward the viewer, his body foreshortened to create a sense of physical collapse. The horse behind him is also foreshortened, its massive body looming over the fallen figure. You can read more about his lighting technique in our entry on chiaroscuro.
Pozzo's ceiling frescoes represent the peak of Baroque foreshortening. The Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius (1685-1694, Church of Sant'Ignazio, Rome) covers a flat barrel vault with figures that appear to ascend into infinite space. Every figure is foreshortened for viewing from a specific point on the floor, marked by a marble disc. The foreshortening is so precise that from the correct viewpoint, the painted architecture is indistinguishable from real architecture.
Research in visual perception has revealed that foreshortening is more complex than simple geometry suggests. A 2025 study published in Scientific Reports found that viewers perceive shape in pictures according to a "per-fixation perspective," where each eye fixation establishes its own local linear perspective. This means that viewers do not interpret a foreshortened figure according to a single global projection but process it piece by piece as their eyes move across the image. The study is available at Nature Scientific Reports.
The arXiv study on human perspective deviation noted that research on human perception of 2D depictions of 3D objects shows that humans make systematic errors when estimating foreshortened shapes and dimensions, even for simple tasks. This means that viewers do not see foreshortened objects the way geometry predicts. Artists compensate for these perceptual errors by adjusting their foreshortening, producing images that look correct even when they deviate from geometric accuracy. The study is available at arXiv.
A 2025 study published in Modern Problems of Modeling examined spherical perspective in Northern Renaissance painting, arguing that artists like Jan van Eyck and Pieter Bruegel used constructions based on reflection in a round convex mirror that produced foreshortening closer to natural human vision than standard linear perspective. The study suggested that spherical perspective can convey objects in the foreground without the extreme distortions inherent in linear perspective foreshortening. The study is available at Modern Problems of Modeling.
Draw a cylinder lying on a table with one end pointing toward you. The near circle appears large and round. The far circle appears smaller. The sides of the cylinder converge from the near circle to the far circle. The length of the cylinder on the page is much shorter than the actual cylinder. This is foreshortening in its simplest form.
For figure drawing, the challenge is greater. A reclining figure with feet toward the viewer requires you to draw the feet large, the legs compressed, the torso a short horizontal band, and the head small. The temptation is to draw the figure at its correct proportions, which destroys the foreshortening. The solution is to measure visually: hold your pencil at arm's length and compare the apparent width of the feet to the apparent length of the torso. The measurements will be nothing like the actual proportions of the body.
The key skill is separating what you see from what you know. You know that a human torso is longer than a human foot. But when the foot is pointing at you, the foot appears larger than the torso. Drawing what you see rather than what you know is the foundation of foreshortening, and it is one of the hardest skills for beginning artists to master.
Foreshortening is most dramatic in ceiling paintings and large-scale frescoes, where the viewing angle requires extreme compression. Start with Mantegna's Lamentation at the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan, the most famous foreshortened figure in art. Then visit the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City for Michelangelo's ceiling, where 300 foreshortened figures demonstrate the technique at monumental scale. End at the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome for Pozzo's ceiling, where foreshortening creates the illusion of infinite space on a flat surface.
For more on perspective and depth, read our entries on linear perspective, picture plane, and composition, or explore our post on how to read a painting to learn more techniques you can use in museums.
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